A Critical Comparison between Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s “Tears, Idle Tears” and “Splendor Falls on Castle Walls”

Alfred, Lord Tennyson is one of the most influential poets during Victorian age. As being symbolized by T.S. Eliot, “The saddest of all English poets”, Tennyson portrays the melody of melancholy throughout his creation. His subtle treatment of human feelings encountered with the pain of death and melancholy of loneliness, always influenced his reader in the core of their heart and compelled them to flow in the wave of sadness along with the poet himself.

Tennyson wrote The Princess (1847) as one of his long poems, which emphasizes on the women rights through a musical verse. “Tears, Idle Tears” is the part of this long poem. In this poem, poet typically walking through the memory lane and became nostalgic about those moments which can never be brought back again once in life. Here poet dragged about the true story of life in the frame of time – where we all are the victim in time’s hand. There is no reverse direction, as with time, we only have to move forward – and the moments in our life we shared so precious and valuable, though we can only be able to access their worthiness when we lose them in time’s hand. The remainder in our life is left with the memories of non-returnable events and close persons – those who slept forever, became apart from us and couldn’t come back once again in our life. Truly it brings tears in readers’ eyes, from the very core of heart, while acclimatizing gradually with the decoration of words and passionate themes of the journey, readers can actually relate the pain of human condition – which is universal and inevitable too.

“TEARS, Idle Tears, I know not what they mean,
Tears from the depth of some divine despair
Rise in the heart, and gather to the eyes,
In looking on the happy autumn fields,
And thinking of the days that are no more.”

The credit of the poet lies in the depiction of the biggest truth of life within an envelope of simplicity. Throughout the poem, there is a subtle tenderness; no human being could possibly ignore it - we are loosing every moment, every precious second of our life, and when we realize this or try to introspect, we cannot resist tears fallen down from our eyes. This is where this poem crosses all the limits of space and time, and become immortal – by illustrating the eternal truth of life – the mortality itself. The process of life in the unidirectional frame of time, the death is the only answer remains at last – as an ultimate reality of life.

And actually the poem became so heart-touching because the poet treated it in a truly fascinating passion through the eyes of a beloved recalling those moments where the most shared events are gone in the darkness of past and just left behind the pain of lost moments to feel alone sitting beside the casement:

Ah, sad and strange as in dark summer dawns
The earliest pipe of half awaken'd birds
To dying ears, when unto dying eyes
The casement slowly grows a glimmering square;
So sad, so strange, the days that are no more.

On the other hand, the song “The Splendor Falls On Castle Walls”, taken from “The Princess” as well, focuses on the inevitability of death after life as it is depicted in the “Tears, Idle Tears”, but the words are synchronized in the form of lyrical melody. The primary theme here is also dealing with the mortality of an entity, but by emphasizing on the journey of life through the interaction of love and passion among individuals and the longing for life.

O sweet and far from cliff and scar
The horns of Elfland faintly blowing!
Blow, let us hear the purple glens replying,
Blow, bugle; answer, echoes dying, dying, dying.

This song develops with the illustration of superficiality and nothingness – treating the song as well as the title of the song as a message for an eternal truth – that ascertains the decaying process of any superficial objects in the continuum of time. The only ‘echo’ will remain conveying the shared joy and feelings from one entity to another:

O love they die in yon rich sky,
They faint on hill or field, or river:
Our echoes roll from soul to soul,
And grow forever and forever.

The theme of the song “The Splendor Falls on Castle Walls” equates that of the poem “Tears, Idle Tears”, but the treatment of the same theme is different. In the song, the poet put his emphasize more on generalization of the supreme truth, whereas in the poem, the poet drew his reader to flow in through the reality of life and to feel the melancholy through personalization of truth.

The song and its improvisation is outstandingly philosophical with its own style of presentation of the fact – the individualization has definitely added a new dimension on it, but the poem is more soul-satisfying, more poetic, more sentimental and more passionate of course. Hence, I feel that the poem is truly more appealing where readers are able to personify the experience in the self-mirror and hence feel the passage of time by the core of their heart.

The Role of Special Education in Dealing with Students with Impairments and a Critical Insight over Preparing for Collaborative Team Teaching

Special education refers to the mode of education given to the students with impairments in order to meet their unique educational needs. The programs designed under the curriculum of special education are intended for capacitating the students in terms of educational, vocational and social potentials. There are several types of impairments that are identified as imposing interference with the conventional mode of education. The present study will limit its discussion with autism spectrum disorder, physical and health disabilities, deaf culture, speech and language disorder, emotional and behavior disorder and cognitive impairment. In addition, the study will focus on the required modifications in the teaching styles to accommodate students with these disabilities.

Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) refers to a wide array of neurodevelopmental conditions which involve behaviorally defined syndrome influencing multiple areas of functioning. Features are prominent, to varying degrees, including social affiliations, communicative proficiency, degree of interests, and sensory reactions. Almost all of the features are typically apparent during a child's early years, and certainly affect educational performance in an adverse fashion. Typically a child is identified with ASD who exhibits a range of traits including Autistic Disorder, Rett's Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, Asperger's Disorder and Pervasive Developmental Disorder.

Children suffering from ASD have complex and frequently exigent educational needs. To meet these demands effectively, teaching styles needs to be modified in order to accommodate such students in the class. The first line of intervention for children suffering from ASD is educational and behavioral, so the development of collaborative and positive family-school association is significantly important. Working in a collaborative fashion and sharing relevant information with each other help to develop a strong framework for educational program for students with ASD (Berkell, Malgeri & Streit 1996). The special education will be initiated from the point of evaluation for identifying disabilities followed by the intervention strategies effective for the children with Autism Spectrum Disorders.

The choice of an intervention strategy largely depends on an individualized assessment of needs along with a clearly defined goal, whereas the selection of strategies is based on the enduring observation of the progress. For students with ASD, implementation of Individual Education Programs (IEPs) should be widespread including environmental support, applied behavioral analysis, intervention for self-direction, socialization and communication and intervention for engagement (Koegel & Koegel 1995).

Applied behavioral analysis includes organized instructional methodologies to alter behavior in assessable fashion, with the purpose of influencing acceptable behaviors, while discouraging problematic behavior. This may include highly-structured systematic strategies such as incidental training, pivotal response training, picture exchange communication system (PECS) (Bondy & Frost 1994), structured teaching and functional communication training (92 NAC 51, 1999). A great deal of attention to social and communication objectives is essential in designing an effective learning program. With the help of planned activities with naturally developing peers can help children with ASD to gain an improved social and communicative skills which is an important component of the IEP.

Environmental support involves teaching strategies, alternations and adaptations which include understanding of observed characteristics at temporal, spatial, procedural and assertion level. Children with ASD tend to exhibit limited or idiosyncratic interactions with events, objects and people, so it is essential for both teachers and parents to adapt activities and teaching materials in order to support more appropriate engagement. This may involve directly teaching the usage of toys or others objects, developing visual cues in order to trim down verbal and physical response and finding ways to turn the tasks more consequential and inspiring (Koegel & Koegel 1995).

Physical and Health Disabilities

Students suffering from physical and health disabilities may vary significantly in the nature and severity of their disabilities, however, many physical and health disabilities do not limit students' academic performance (Sherrill, 1993). Anderson (Caldwell & Palfrey et al, 1997) designed a checklist of items to regard as in developing an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for students with health and physical disabilities. This may include transportation, building accessibility, physical, occupational and speech therapy, self-help skills, curricular modifications, classroom assistance, physical education, fire safety, home/hospital service. Environmental factors for students with health and physical disabilities might involve extended time, an add-on writer for class assignments, sufficient space in the classroom for accommodating equipments, or for privileged seating arrangement in order to overcome their educational difficulties (Caldwell, et al. 1997). Adaptive equipments including adapted keyboards, track balls, key guards or speech recognition system may also be necessitated (St. Louis Community College Access Office, 2000).

Deaf Culture

Deaf culture refers to a phenomenon which is beyond a medical condition. Individuals suffering from deafness problem are not simply having 'diseased ears', but they do belong to a unique community in which the sense of culture is optimum among those who depend on sign language as their primary mode of communication. Similar to African-American culture, deaf culture asserts the fact that the sign language plays an increasingly fundamental role in the cultural alliance of the deaf community as a whole.

Sound and Fury – Hearing World and Deaf Culture
In the documentary 'Sound and Fury' directed by Josh Aronson and produced by Roger Weisberg, an in-depth insight at the two cultures 'Hearing' and 'Deaf', eroded against each other stuns the audience new to the later. At the humanitarian point of view, it is beyond any acceptance that such fear and prejudice subsists between deaf and hearing worlds. The movie makes the issue transparent that these two are indeed separate worlds. Following a cochlear implantation, the difference between the hearing world and deaf culture becomes most prominent in terms of dealing with the intricacies of budging between hearing world and deaf world. Being both emotionally moving and intellectually challenging, the movie sheds light over deaf identity and illustrates the strong sense of culture can overshadow the notion of mere technological intervention. The documentary clearly surmises the conflict between deaf identity and culture with that of the hearing world from socio-psychological perspective, emphasizing over the issue concerning deaf culture as not a mere deafness but a way of living life.

Speech and Language Disorder
A student with speech and language disorder may have mild to severe level of communication disorder that negatively affects his or her academic performance such as language impairment, voice impairment, articulation impairment and fluency impairment. The major causes contributing to the development of speech and language disorder may include hearing loss, brain injury, neurological disorder, mental retardation, physical impairments such as cleft lip, drug abuse and vocal abuse or misuse (Hamaguchi 2001).

While accommodating students with speech and language disorder in the classroom setup, the teacher must focus on integrating several important aspects in modifying the learning environment for the student in concern. The teacher may take her best effort to minimize any extraneous noise in the classroom so that the students with disabilities may become able to put their attention over the relevant stimuli in the environment. While offering vocal instructions, the teacher needs to maintain the minimum reasonable distance with the students and to offer instructions in smaller cluster assisting in better understanding and comprehension (Ladd 2003). In addition, the teacher should facilitate sufficient visual cues including pictures, graphs and charts in the classroom. The learning environment should be positive for the student where avoid rectifying speech difficulties is strictly prohibited as it may lead the student to experience weaker self esteem. In addition, teacher must encourage the students to identify and enhance their positive qualities in order to promote better facilitation in the educational paradigm (Ladd 2003).

Emotional and Behavior Disorders

Emotional and behavior disorders are characterized by the behavioral condition unsuitable in the context of environmental stimuli in association with extreme mood disorder, negatively influencing a student's academic performance, although can not be categorized under intellectual, sensory or health factors (Sternberg & Williams 2002).
While accommodating students with emotional and behavior disorders, teacher must design the session in such a fashion during which disruptive behaviors from students with emotional and behavior disorders could possibly be avoided. The seating arrangement of these students with this disorder need to be organized in the places where they can be easily observed and accessed, so that any potential harm to others or themselves could be circumvented. Teachers must use checklists in order to monitor the behavioral changes in the students suffering from this disorder. The teacher must ensure that all the penalties concerning negative behavior as well as rules for group assignments are explained clearly prior to the implementation of such penalties. Instead of setting up goals on a long term basis, the short term goal in sequence is found to be more effective in dealing with students with such difficulties, promoting an effective learning environment. Students must be encouraged to maintain own checklists in order to carry out successful self-evaluation. This eventually leads them to stay organized and respond in a better way and to have a clear perspective of their own progress (Dice 1993).

Mental Retardation
Mental retardation refers to a condition characterizing a pattern of indefatigably slow learning of fundamental motor and language abilities during childhood along with a radically below-normal universal intellectual competence as an adult. An IQ level below 70 signifies a deficiency in adaptive functioning.

The possible causes of mental retardation may be attributed to three genetic disorders – down syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome and fragile X syndrome. The impaired genetics conditions are believed to be the most common causes of mental retardation. In addition, researchers have identified few other causes that may profoundly heighten the risk for developing mental retardation in a child. Difficulties during or following pregnancy may also result in severe problem in the fetus such as genetic mutation occurring during fetal development or if the mother suffers from rubella during her pregnancy. In addition, if the baby is not exposed to sufficient oxygen during pre and post-birth phases, it may lead to developmental disability following brain damage. Malnutrition or iodine deficiency may contribute to the development of mental retardation. Institutionalization at a very young age as well as sensory deprivation for a prolonged period of time is considered as the significant environmental variables increasing the risk of being mentally retarded. The forceps delivery increases the risk of getting mentally retarded child three times higher than a normal delivery (Szymanski & King 1999).

Significance of IQ
An Intelligent Quotient (IQ) refers to the standardized test intending to perform a quantitative analysis of intelligence of an individual in different areas including language, understanding, numerical literacy, problem-solving skills and decision-making ability (DSM IV 2000). While the average score is defined as 100, the score below 75 will frequently, not always, imply individuals having difficulties in interacting with daily life-events. As standardized in Wechsler Adult Intelligent Scale (WAIS), mental retardation can be categorized under four identified spectrums - IQ level varying between 55 to 70 implies mild level of mental retardation which is educable and the required intensity of supports is intermittent, between 40 to 54 it is implied as moderate and this level is trainable with limited intensity of required supports, between 25 to 39 the level of mental retardation is severe which is non-trainable and the intensity of required supports is extensive and IQ score below 25 signifies non-trainable education level and the intensity of supports required is pervasive. In the context of total population in the United States, the prevalence of individuals with mild level of mental retardation is 0.9-2.7% and the rest three levels combine 0.3-0.4% (Van & Mark 1997).

Preparation for a Collaborative Team Teaching

Collaborative team teaching encourages several pedagogical and intellectual benefits by facilitating dynamic and interactive learning environment, permitting teachers an effective mode of modeling thoughts within or across the boundary of disciplines, and inspiring researchers to advocate new ideas and intellectual affiliation among faculties. The most attractive advantage of collaborative team teaching is getting facilitated with the opportunity to be both teacher and learner at the same time. As the collaborative team teaching demands cooperation among faculty members, who can occasionally be protective about their sessions and teaching styles, so prior to my participation in the collaborative team teaching class in next September I will put my best effort in understanding the context and enhancing my soft skills including good communication, punctuality, negotiating skills, hard work, showing respect to others and diplomatic attitude (McDaniel & Colarulli 1990). In my understanding I fully realize that the initial phase of the class may need more attention to be given in a non-conventional mode of learning, however, as the session progresses it would facilitate the teachers to experience personal benefits in terms of improved classroom management abilities, sharper observational skills, increased ability to play the role of active learner, improved critical thinking skills, increased level of group compliance and a positive change in learner-instructor relationship (McCann and Radford 1993). As the primary objective of a successful collaborative team teaching is to explore innovative teaching strategies and promote excellence, I will prepare myself both psychologically and emotionally acclimatized with the collaborative environment so that I could be able to take the best possible opportunities offered as well as to help my co-learners to attain their goal in a mutual learning setup (Letterman and Dugan, 2004). In addition, I will go through all the relevant literatures, journals and research papers concerning the strategies used in collaborative team teaching along with its implication in helping students with disabilities (Wentworth and Davis, 2002) so that I could be able to smooth the progress of my assignment.

Works Cited
92 NAC 51, Title 92, Nebraska Administrative Code, Chapter 51. Nebraska Department of Education Rule 51, regulations and standards for special education programs. Effective Date, October 3, 1999 (Revised).

American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC: APA Press; 2000:41-9.

Berkell, D.E., Malgeri, S.E., Streit, M.K. "Auditory integration training for individuals with autism". Education & Training in Mental Retardation & Developmental Disabilities, Vol 31(1), 1996: 66-70.

Bondy, A.S. & Frost, L. A. The picture exchange communication system. Focus On Autistic Behavior, Vol. 9 (3), 1994: 1-19.

Caldwell, T. H., Palfrey, J. S., Porter, S., Haynie, M., & Bierle, T. Children and youth assisted by medical technology in educational settings: Guidelines for care (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 1997

Caldwell, T. H., Sirvis, B. P., Still, J., Still, M., Schwab, N., Jones, J., et al. "Students who require medical technology in school". In S. Porter, M. Haynie, T. Bierle, T. Heintz, & J. Palfrey (Eds.), Children and youth assisted by medical technology in educational settings, 1997: 3- 18, Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Dice, Marvin L. Intervention Strategies for Children with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders. San Diego, California: Singular Publishing Group, Inc., 1993.

Hamaguchi, P. M. Childhood speech, language, & listening problems: What every parent should know (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2001

Koegel, R.L. & Koegel, L.K. Teaching children with autism: Strategies for initiating positive interactions and improving learning opportunities. Baltimore: Paul Brooks, 1995

Ladd P. Understanding Deaf Culture: In Search of Deafhood. Publisher: Multilingual Matters Limited, 2003.

Letterman, Margaret R. and Kimberly B. Dugan. "Team Teaching a Cross-Disciplinary Honors Course: Preparation and Development." College Teaching 55, no. 2, 2004: 76-79.

McCann, I. & Radford, R. Mentoring for teachers: The collaborative approach. In B.J. Cadwell and E.M. Carter (Eds.), The return of the mentor: Strategies for workplace learning, Washington, DC: Falmer Press,

McDaniel, E. A. and Colarulli, 0. C. "Collaborative teaching in the face of productivity concerns: The dispersed team model," Innovative Higher Education (citing Gabelnick et al., 1990), 1997.

Sherrill, C. "Adapted physical activity, recreation, and sport". Boston: MCB/McGraw-Hill, 1993
St. Louis Community College Access Office. Orthopedic disabilities, 1993. Retrieved March 14, 2000, from the World Wide Web: http://www.stlcc.cc.mo.us/fv/access/ortho.htm
Sternberg, Robert J. and Williams, Wendy M. Educational Psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2002.

Szymanski L, King B H. "Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children, adolescents, and adults with mental retardation and co morbid mental disorders". American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Working Group on Quality Issues. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999 Dec; 38(12 Suppl): 5S-31S

Van R S & Mark J H. "Psychiatric assessment of the person with mental retardation". Psychiatric Annals, 1997 Mar; 27.

Wentworth, J & James R. D. "Enhancing Interdisciplinary Through Team Teaching". In Carolyn Hayes, ed. Innovations in Interdisciplinary Teaching, Westport, CT: The Oryx Press, 2002. 16-37.

Plato’s defence of the Republic King in the “Republic”

Introduction

Plato (c. 427 – 347 B.C.E) formulized a varied range of areas of philosophy including epistemology, metaphysics, politics, ethics and aesthetics. Being a prototypical political philosopher of all time, Plato provided a reflective impact on successive theories of politics. The central ideology of Plato’s philosophical interpretation was primarily based on his use of dialectics, a mode of arguments concerning the profound reflections of nature of reality as well as using cognitive optimism, a principle believing in the ability of the human mind in order to accomplish truth and to use this truth for fulfilling the objective predominantly based on rational choice to act on human affairs set with virtuous ordering. Plato believed that a harmonious society can be attained by the interaction of specific mode of righteous and rational order of political philosophy based on the implementation of virtue. However, the “Republic” likewise the “Statesman” and the “Law” and other few other short dialogues, described as political dialogues, the political philosophy had received significant consideration in the approach of Plato. Conceptual analysis, as introduced by Plato for the first time in the framework of political philosophy, is defined as a mental clearance implying the clarification of a conceptualization in its implication, using which the philosopher and analyst can deal with incompatible ideas corresponding to the requirement based on rational reality. In his political philosophy, Plato thus, coined the conceptual analysis as a tool for evaluating beliefs corresponding to find out the result of the best political order. The continuum representing the movement from clarification of analysis by the virtue of evaluation of beliefs to attain the goal of best political order is enunciated in the structure of Plato’s Republic. This paper aims at finding out the basic philosophy of Plato’s analogies and his formulation of the division of soul structure as well as an insight of Plato’s defence of the Republic King in the “Republic” with a clear understanding of critical evaluation of Plato.

Basic Philosophical Conceptualization of Plato

The Good
Plato, being the idealist philosopher, described the idea of the Good in his volume “Republic” through the dialogues of Socrates. The idealization of the Good is described as the child or offspring (ekgonos) of the Good, as ascribed by the superlative model of goodness, hence attributing to the absolute determinant of justice. Plato’s explanation of his theory of justice, as articulated in his ideology of a city in dialectics, affirmatively attributed the rule of rational mind as implicated in the formation of philosopher-king, having the ability to take a hold of the Idea of the Good. Plato theorised that the highest attainment of knowledge or wisdom is the Idea of the Good, which has an implication in gaining usefulness and value. In general, the humans are programmed to practise the good, but without the knowledge of philosophical reasoning this attainment is not perfectly possible. Goodness has its own implication of involving factors such as justice, truth, equality and beauty that can be defined as the “Hierarchy of Forms”. Our ideologies to understand materialistic knowledge based on mathematics and science are propounded with the underlying theme of abstraction by the methods of opinion based on perception that is actually situated at the bottom of the materialistic plane.

The Cave

The Republic is one of the most influential contributions made in the history of political philosophy and the Cave is the most popular allegory of the Republic. In the Republic, the human condition is described as in the state of prisoners constrained in a cave observing only the shadows reflected on the wall they are facing. The goal of human mind is thus transcendence from this state by virtue of incorporating genuine education, envisaged as liberation from imprisonment, and articulated as a movement towards an upward journey of soul from the darkness into light by virtue of employing new point of reference of one’s whole life. In the part VII of the book “Republic”, the Cave represents the philosophical position through figurative depiction. The allegory of the Cave is an out of the ordinary reflection as Socrates himself agreed that the Cave is not an exact phenomenon (504b5; cf. 435c9-d2). Plato’s cave depicts a central theme corresponding to the ideologies illustrated by Socrates’ philosophical examinations that the appropriate teaching only occurs when students are willing to search the wisdom for themselves, discovery for themselves. This readiness of for self-examination actually contributes to the possibility of the ‘care of the soul’.
In the cave, as described in the Republic, the prisoners are able to differentiate between different shadows and sounds (516c8-9, cf. e8-9), to relate the names of the shadows illustrating objects (cf. 515b4-5) as well as even discriminate between the patterns of their appearance (516c9-10), attributing to an understanding of reality insofar. However, their knowledge of entire reality encapsulates the understanding of two-dimensional, monochromatic interaction of figures and sound-echoes reverberating within the cave, which is pertinently unsuitable to the inclusion of reality and thus can be articulated as an error. They do not possess any clear concepts regarding the formation of shape and their existence likewise whatsoever (515b7-9). Metaphorically like prisoners, the human condition is composed of limited, small-scale, true beliefs characteristics. As put in the Republic, a human being possesses the ability to differentiate between a varieties of object, whereas, consists of an inadequate capacity of explaining those objects systematically and causally. In other words, a human being possesses true beliefs of what of phenomenon, but a distorted why of phenomenon. At this point, Socrates’ exploration of justice incorporates as a mechanism to find out the pragmatic explanation of why phenomenons are the way they are and the mutual interactive relationship between those phenomenons. As described by Plato, as an individual attains his wisdom articulated to the knowledge of form of a phenomenon in particular, a comprehensive account of its essence can be produced thereafter.

The Philosopher-King

While putting his emphasis on the notion concerning the ideology of education and the value of justice in the account of political institution in large perspective, Plato idealized the defence of an aristocratic government seemed to have unlikely won the endorsement of democratic Athens. Plato particularly utilised the characters known as Galucon and Adeimantus while putting an emphasis for a practical argument against the plan. The notion particularly employed few fundamental characteristics whence defining the ‘guardian’ class including gender indifference during participation, exclusion of families and education for the children.
The majority of the Greek society of that time considered that as there is a natural difference between males and females, thus it is fundamental that there is a significant difference in their societal role as well. Plato recognised the implication of the natural differences among males and females including their size, colour, height and strength, however, Plato did not accept the ideology of any systematic differences between males and females regarding their role to play as a guardian as well as there is no gender bias in relation to the understanding of the reality and making reasonable judgement about it.
Additionally Plato considered that the children, if raised within the guardian class being separated from their biological parents, may possess the ability to serve the society in a best possible way which have been criticised significantly by several scholars (Shorey, 1982 & 1987).

Quite evidently, the general notion of impracticality surrounds the concept of philosopher king. However, according to Plato’s ideology ‘what should it be’ is preferred over ‘what it is now’ in order to pursue the truest form of reality in terms of transcendence of facts in daily lives. Believing in the ideal state, Plato perceived the embodiment of the highest and best abilities of human’s societal framework, if the perfect individual is set on charge. The primary key to the accomplishment of the entire manhood is wisdom which is employed rationally by the intervention of knowledge. Plato conceptualized that the attainment of perfect society is dependent on the interrelationships among kings and philosophers, that is, the attainment is possible only when the king has turned into philosophers or philosophers to king.

The Sun

The Sun, as explained in the “Republic”, is considered to be a unique Form of the Good. This is unique in terms of distinguishing it as single out of other Form as distinct in category from the others, as Plato did not put any continual focus to the good per se. as Plato explained in the ‘Republic that the ‘good’ can not be defined, but an analogy can be provided with a mode of comparative analysis illustrating that good refers to wisdom and truth what the sun refers to light and sight. The analogy provides the objects of understanding the truth as well as the mind the supremacy of recognition is the Form of the Good. It refers to the knowledge truth, which is recognised as being itself known, to the higher degree and even higher than knowledge and truth itself. Plato analysed that as the light and sight can be considered as being like the sun, the wisdom is inappropriate while considering light and sight as being the sun itself which is as similar as the understanding of knowledge and truth as being like the Good, but not being the Good itself. Hence, it can concluded by following the allegory that the Good is the foundation for not only the intelligible part of the objects of wisdom as well as their presence and implication in reality; however, not indistinguishable with reality itself, but beyond the phenomenon of reality, by encapsulating the form of dignity and power with a superior mode of identification.

The Sun

The analogy of sun primarily concerns following five essential principles –
The Eye is unable to visualize objects such as Tree for example in the absence of the Sun; which is similar to the understanding featuring that the Mind is unable to recognize the Forms without the knowledge of the Form of the Good.
The Eye must possess a nature of the same kind to the Sun so that objects such as Tree can be seen, which is analogous to the understanding that the Soul must possess a nature of the same kind to the Good so that the Forms can be known.
The Sun is responsible in the generation of living beings, which is analogous to the Good as it is responsible for the generation of Forms.
The Good contributes to the basis of wisdom and truth and like each of them either but not identical, and is better than both.
The Good is also considered as the source of being and is beyond being in solemnity and outshining power.
To make the reader understand the analogy, Socrates derived tripartite relationship among the Eye, the Sun and the perceivable object (the Tree) in which the relationship among the knower, the known and the phenomenon that makes the knowing possible are explored.

The Line

In the Republic, volume VI as explained by Socrates the fictional methodology of a divided line is used to teach the fundamental philosophical ideologies attributing to the four levels of existence and the corresponding approaches about the existence.

The Divided Line

Socrates illustrated an imaginative line divided into two segments, in which the larger segment (CE) depicting the intelligible world as the smaller segment (AC) depicting the visible world. Again, each segment of the line is subdivided into another two segments following the same ratio. The sub-divisions constituting the intelligible world represent the higher (DE) and the lower (CD) form, whereas on the other hand, the sub-divisions constituting the visible world represent the ordinary visible objects (BC) and reflections and other representations (AB). The implication of inequality of line segments particularly represents their virtual transparency as well as shadows in terms of attainment of ‘reality and truth’. As per Socrates’ prescription, the two middle segments denoted as BC and CD essentially are of same length. This implies that our interaction with ordinary perceptual objects leading to the attainment of reality and truth in particular, whereas, if the shadows or reflections are attended, this may lead to the attainment of relatively obscure opinion of phenomenon that is actually not real. As Socrates pointed out the intimate relationship between ordinary objects and their representative imagery can be described in terms of explaining the interrelationship among the visual objects and their corresponding images along with world of forms. The visual world is in particular a referential framework of specific reflection of the world of forms that corresponds to more reality and truthfulness. While considering the ideology behind the sub-divisions articulating to the intelligible world, it can be conceptualized that the lower form (CD) constitutes the real items in terms of the shadows all around particularly reflected from the ordinary particular objects; the higher form, on the other hand, representing hypothetically ‘the Form of the Good’ are in essence shaped into priori reasoning, as the wisdom contributed as the experience not particularly dependent of any perceptually-known particulars or ideologies.

Plato’s Theory of the Division of the Soul

In the “Republic”, Plato reflected a great insight on justice assuming that justice is an outstanding condition of soul; hence, the “Republic” portrays a significant reflection on the Plato’s notion of the soul. As defined as the ideology of central characteristics of the soul entirely depends on the accountability for the life of a being attributing to the cognitive and intellectual functioning by means of moral virtues inclusive of courage and justice. At the end of “Republic” volume I, Socrates provided Thrasymachus an intricate argument at the end of the discussion by declaring that “injustice is never more profitable than justice” (357a), however, injustice and justice are in essence evenly profitable in the dialectical context. This evidently concludes that just individuals are more happier than the unjust, so the spectacular distinction implies on how good individuals live their lives which essentially depends on the reflective differences stemmed from the practicing of cognitive and intellectual functioning, are functionally symbolizes the divergences in the states of the soul, on the basis of analysing the presence or absence of virtues of justice, courage and temperance.

The “Republic” signifies that the human soul in particular comprises of three main aspects –
• Reason
• Spirit / Emotion
• Appetite
Reason is considered as having the greatest value, while spirit or emotion and especially appetite are considered as being ‘lower passion’. An ordered state of soul is particularly governed by Reason. Plato concluded that only the ‘happy’ individual is a ‘just’ individual, whose state of the soul is presided over by Reason and it eventually takes a control over the state of emotion and appetite. In order to attain a balanced state of soul, the ‘emotion’ and ‘appetite’ must be submitted under ‘reason’.

Plato defined theoretical framework of soul division was primarily illustrated in ‘The Republic’, which was essentially derived by challenging the theme propounded by Sophists to analyse the reason behind an individual should live morally. The Sophists in Plato’s time, in particular, were a group of individuals who utilized philosophy as a mode for making profit as well as for promoting so called ‘immoral behaviour’ by exploiting the philosophical aspect of moral loopholes. The cynics questioned about the significance of morality considering as a social device for maintaining social order, whereas if immoral behaviour does not promote any consequence, there is no motivational pressure for morality. While answering this quandary, Plato explained that morality is an essential reason for becoming a happy individual, thus happiness can be an important motivational factor for an immoral individual acting towards becoming a moral individual. The happy individual is a just individual, according to Plato, and vice-versa as illustrated below:
If Y is happy, then Y is just and
If Y is just, then Y is happy
But the critics argued that the daily activities contradict with Plato’s logic of morality versus immorality, as challenged the first statement describing the principle of tyrants, motivated by unjust principle, actually found to be very happy. The second statement as well challenged by the sceptics by illustrating the fact that saints are meant to suffer however they are just otherwise. This is where Plato’s theory of soul intervened. He answered this contradiction using his ideology of soul division illustrating that to be truly happy an individual’s Emotion (for example, anger and fear) and Appetite (need for food, sex, money) must be governed by Reason (persuasion, logical thinking, and argument). On the other hand, a just individual’s lower passions are also governed by Reason.

In addition to the illustration of the division of the soul, Plato explained that tyrant is not in practice truly happy, which is reflected in his pattern of behaviour. Governed by lower passions, tyrants are known to dislodge Reason with Emotion which is characterised by fear of elimination and powerlessness over trusting others; as well as with Appetite which is characterised by the insatiable hunger for being rich or attainment of power. At the end, as Plato concluded, such an individual will be pulled apart by his lower passion, becomes unable to find out the possible condition for being happy with a disordered state of soul. Reason, being the most superior part of the soul, contributes to the attainment of knowledge and truth. Reason, in essence, is concerned to conduct and standardize the life force by following an ideal framework attributing to the wisdom by virtue of understanding three aspects of soul independently as well as mutual interaction among them within the periphery of soul.

Critical Evaluation

The primary objective of the Republic is to define the principle framework to form an ideal society. While conceptualizing this phenomenon, Plato reflected upon various factors in relation to education, ethics, politics, and morality in terms of textual illustration and allegorical exemplification. Researchers have identified that the primary argument of the Republic is essentially a part of a response to the political turbulence and instability which was witnessed by Plato in Athenian societal framework. Being a witness of the consequence of post-Peloponnesian war, Plato formulized the concept for attainment of stability as a result of true justice after viewing the contemporary forms of authoritative corruption. As he postulated that the humankind would have no reprieve from problem, if the true philosophers could have the political power or the political leaders possess the knowledge of philosophy. In the perspective of this principle, Plato revealed the proposal of the creation of educational system primarily focusing in shaping the character, in contrast to the Sophists promoted the ascendancy of oratory over moral education, leading to the attainment of eventual objective of the educator being not just conveying the knowledge, but also make the learners to open their mind’s eyes to the wisdom so that this makes the reflection possible.
Plato’s first theories in metaphysics were regarded as the most intelligible and the most existent in nature, such as One and Good, considered as the highest universals. Aristotle hypothesized significant particulars as the truest phenomenon, yet not the intelligible objects all the time, hence the universal knowledge may be possibly hypothesized by him. It can be assumed that the influence of mathematical science motivated Plato to conceptualize the highest invariants, the One and the Good for example, in contrast to the possible biological and physical investigation led Aristotle to focus on the individual personifying explicit attributes that actually separate them from other entities. Thus Aristotle’s particulars numerically one was attributable for him, while universals generically one less attributable however considered as more intelligible for consideration. Hitherto the generic principles like Forms and Good as defined by Aristotle are almost as universal as Plato’s however Aristotle reflects on them more thoroughly by virtue of investigating their precise demarcation, in the perspective of both epistemological and ontological framework. Considering the milieu of generic principles, both of them are analogically no more than equal; yet need to be further explored on the basis of specific differentiation as governed by the principles of special sciences. Quite evidently, Aristotle criticized Plato’s generic principles arguing it as a mistake of getting into another genus of things in particular.

The criticism of Plato’s contribution to the philosophy primarily comes in a way as his dialogues not meant to Academic treatise that can be embark principles of inquiry following any systematic methodology, leading to a crucial form of difficulties in exploring his fundamental principles. In contrast to this, Aristotle explicitly investigates the principles of metaphysics in relation to other sciences. Both of the thinkers considered mathematics as the study of wisdom and logic; however the implementation differed in both of the cases quite significantly. Primarily Aristotle defined mathematical science as a method similar to physical principles; however, he rejected the notion of considering mathematics as explained in Platonic ontology defining mathematical entities (Cleary, 1995).

Both Plato and Aristotle focus on the intrinsic problems of exploring initiating-points that are confirmed enough as the basic structures, including both ontological and epistemological perspective, in order to develop a dwelling place for the philosophical entity. By considering Socrates as his moral guide, Plato developed the notion of Forms in order to solve the difficulties associated with foundations, leading to the transcendence of flux of sensibilities considered as the predetermined paradigm of conduct. However, the controversy in relation to the notion of Good as illustrated in the Republic is also present as it is considered as the absolute hypothesis following the principles of uniqueness and intelligibility for the Form in concern, however, there are no frame of reference in the dialogue that in practice postulates to any corresponding theory of multiplicity.

It seems that the origination of concepts including the implication of numbers out of two principle elements led to a debate among the mainstream Platonists and Aristotle, interpreting it as a sequential genesis. Unity in both of the schools of thought is considered as being responsible for the generation of the integral numbers. This unity is eventually linked with the idealization of order and harmony in the entire cosmos. As briefly explained by Plato in Phaedo and Republic that the principles of unity is assumed to be associated with the principle of the Good. However, Plato did not put his emphasis on establishing such an explicit link, yet Aristotle claimed that Platonists did so. The second principle illustrated in Platonic genesis includes the indefinite continuum of quantity on which the principle of Unity or the principle of Goodness inflicted limitation. Scholars have suggested it as identical with the Pythagorean principle of the Indefinite or Infinite, which is defined by Plato as ‘Great’ and ‘Small’ for providing the interpretation for ‘increase’ and ‘decrease’ in general. Plato explored the notion of ‘limited’ and ‘unlimited’ as the fundamental elements apparently considered as one and many by using his dialectical process of collection and division. Evidently the significant applications of Platonic principles include the characteristics of the philosophical realm consisting of mathematical numbers, where an indefinite congregation of units particularly encircled to exist and can be considered as definite and discrete numbers. Aristotle specifically criticized Plato for his inadequate explanation of the principle of nature. As per example, he mentioned as part of his criticism how Plato analysed the notion of phenomenon coming into being from non-being but an inadequate explanation for substratum or matter in particular.

In his book The Open Society: Chapter 6, Karl Popper provides a concise proclamation of a democratic and equalitarian principle of justice along with a critical review Plato’s theory of justice by putting a special emphasis on the non-interventionist or defensive state with a clear declaration of the language containing political proposals. Popper in essence analysed Plato’s rhetorical process by illustrating the confusions Plato originated while formulized his notion about individualism and altruism linking with selfishness and collectivism of organic state. These confusion becomes apparent with the theoretical perspective of Hegel regarding state, in practice far beyond from being a discovery, the reformulation of Plato’s organic theory of state illustrating the individual attainment of highest accomplishment by identity with the whole. Popper considered Plato’s envisaged state had totalitarian components due to its advocacy of governance not elected by its citizens led to the recognition of the ruling class’s concerns as being the destiny and way of the state in question. Additionally, Popper claimed that conceptualization of state as illustrated by Plato need to undergo censorship due to its manifestation as an autarky (Popper, 1950).

Plato’s ultimate state is a rigid phenomenon describing as a stratified chain of command where individuals are born into their suitable function and exist there, concentrated by selfishness and greediness acting towards individualism and egalitarianism. The absolute criterion for justice is the even and unwavering operation of the entire society rather than focusing on individual interest, as according to Plato, individualism and social chaos are considered as the greatest evils for mankind. Apologists claimed not to declare Plato as a totalitarian as Greeks did not possess the contemporary ideology of democracy. There is considerable substantiation regarding both internal and external form of dialogues to illustrate that far from being uninformed about contemporary perception of justice and freedom, dynamically assailed the equalitarian democratic principle which exists even in modern society as a part of classical liberal tradition. The democrats as well as humanitarian perspectives reflect the ideology of Plato which can be considered as an accolade to his rhetorical abilities and his conceptualization for the weakness considering the crucial aspects of democratic principle and protective state. The ‘natural rights’, illustrating the slogan “we all are born equal”, can be considered as the weakness in the principle of equalitarian justice, however, in the most visible frame of reference, humans are in practice found to be unequal, or may be manifested as dissimilar, which quite evidently lead ‘natural rights’ to be undermined before the proclamation of law. Thus the principle of equality before the application of law including other aspects of democratic justice needs to be re-evaluated and protected through the principle of political applications or demand of the society, not through the essentialist perspective of ‘natural rights’.

Plato associated individualism with selfishness and greediness whereas altruism with organic state of collectivism. This perspective of individualism and altruism shed a light on contemporary psychology, especially Freud’s psychoanalytic theory focusing on the dynamism of human mind and its functioning. Quite evidently, the critics also put their emphasis by coining the debate about human nature and the vision for rational social restructuring taking the form of the debate between groups in the support of human nature considered as social or altruistic and groups in the support of human nature considered as individualistic or selfish. This argument not only covers the philosophical perspective only rather extended the idea with an interaction of ethnology and socio-biology where one group defining it as a result of genetic influence or instinctual basis of action and the other group explaining it as a pathological behaviour stemmed from social and environmental influences.
Plato had been criticised up to quite a length for his undermining the protective principle of the state, which is essentially characterised by the state’s assumed capability to defend the rights and freedoms of minority groups as well as individuals refrained from illogical intrusion by majority or other groups. In each generation the resources and demands reflect the degree of security in reference to ‘unreasonable interference’ as well as ‘positive’ benefits. The protective state can be represented in the debatable form regarding the ‘essential nature’ of the state in question or regarding the historical source of the state in question corresponding with the Social Contract for providing security. The principle of Social Contract evaluates the phenomenon implemented by liberals to explore the ambiguity beneath the totalitarian principle of the organic state. However, this theoretical perspective likewise equalitarian principle received significant criticism as because inadequate evidence approaching a primitive social contract along with an apparent indication of individuals as social animals prior to being align with individuality as well as being compliant with democratic rights in particular. The perspectives of Popper and Hayek are not susceptible to the defence by virtue of resurgence of Platonic ideology of the organic school of thoughts identifying classical liberalism in the form of the alleged principle of ‘social atom’ in explaining the freedom of self. Apart from that, Popper contributed significantly while criticising the concept of rational individuals being able to open their eyes or mind to the authenticated authority by virtue of manifestation of truth. The truth, in particular, was assumed to be apparent for those individuals whose insights were uncovered by evil’s intervention or from the disruption of conventional prejudices.
According to contemporary philosophers and scholars, however, the Greeks discovered political freedom as the truest phenomenon, whereas to delineate western identity entirely as the legacy of philosophical framework is found to be ambiguous for several reasons. One of the first reasons may include the moralistic perspective which is particularly set up as vague dichotomy among high principles, existing as an external factor and an inconsistent realism, characterising inequality, prejudice, exploitation and conflict. This dichotomy in question placed a burden on western philosophical background including justification and political framework for democracy, by virtue of explaining the deviation of ideology differed from realism along with the implication of the difference as being a problematic issue in the perspective of political will as illustrated by its protectors (Grees, 2004).
As described by Tacitus in his Annals about the description of an ideal real state and the modalities of governing the same, he provided more practical implication regarding good versus bad governance than that of philosophical discourse on the ideal structure of governance. While criticising the concepts of social mobility and bureaucracy as illustrated in the Republic, Eric Voegelin (Voegelin, 1956) described the controversy in relation to the crude analysis of social mobility as transference of lower class to the higher one by virtue of having ‘gold in veins’ or bureaucracy as not belonging into family by the ‘guardians’. On the other hand, philosophers like Leo Strauss and Allan Bloom (Strauss, 1987; Bloom, 1991) criticised the conceptual framework, in the background of ideal city, of ‘sacred’ marriage as a consequence of manipulating couples and forcing them in subtle way to get into predefined intercourse by virtue of breeding guardian-warrior, which had been immortalized by Plato in the Republic. While reprimanding some of Plato’s proposals, Leo Strauss in practice undermined the concept of justice by illustrating the city is not a real one but abstraction (Strauss, 1964).

Cognitive Psychology- Working Memory

Working Memory
Working Memory (WM) is a very newly adopted phenomenon of short-term memory (STM), a significant theoretical framework within cognitive psychology. This refers to the structural outlines and procedures used for momentarily storing and manipulating of data. In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch proposed multi-component model of working memory, in which they have described that two ‘slave systems’ are accountable for short-term maintenance of information, one contributes for verbal and acoustic information – the phonological loop and the another one contributes to visual equivalent – the visuospatial sketchpad, and both are reliant on a third attentively-restricted control system – the central executive, ensuring the possibility of conducting more than one task at a given time by virtue of coordination of cognitive processes through the suppression of irrelevant information as well as improper actions. In 2000, Baddeley added a new component to the existing model, known as the episodic buffer, representing the integration of phonological, visual and spatial information in addition to semantic information, musical information, particularly not covered by the traditional ‘slave systems’.
Baddeley’s Multi-component Model of Working Memory
Phonological Loop
The simplest understandable form of the multi-component model of working memory, in which a temporary storage system for acoustic or speech-based information is assumed to be present in order to hold these information arranged in a array of spontaneous fading with a duration of 2 to 3 seconds as refreshed by the process of rehearsal. The process of rehearsal is assumed to entail some type of sub-vocal articulation, not only works for maintaining information within the storage system, but also serves the purpose of registering visual stimuli within the storage, given the objects can be named. Hence, if a small sufficient quantity of information is to be provided, it can be maintained for an indefinite period through the method of continuous rehearsal. The subjects, if conducted a study for assessing the mechanism of phonological loop, will be found to recall a series of letters such B, W, Y, K, R, X, while they will be found to experience difficulty in recalling phonologically similar series of letters such as B, C, D, G, P (Conrad & Hull, 1964) due their less phonological distinctive characteristics which, in turn, make them more error prone and vulnerable to forgetting. Evidence for sub-vocal rehearsal system is prevalent by the word length effect as well, whereby a series of long words such as tuberculosis, university, auditorium, paramedical, opportunity is significantly harder to remember than a series of five monosyllabic words (Baddeley, Thomson, & Buchanan, 1975). The process of rehearsal and production of response are supposed to function in real time, longer words take longer time to coherent, providing more time for the memory trace to fade.
The effect of word length is profound; however, its construal remains somewhat controversial. Quite evidently, longer words take longer time to recall, leading to more forgetting (Cowan et al., 1992). Evidently, a word length effect takes place when output delay is held invariable, either by the use of a probe practice (Henry, 1991), or by recognition (Baddeley, Chincotta, Stafford & Turk, 2002), signifies that the outcome functions at both the on-going level of rehearsal and through the process of forgetting during responding.
Visuo-spatial Sketchpad
This component contributes to the functioning of integrating spatial, visual and to some possible extent kinaesthetic information into a cohesive representation that may be momentarily stored and manipulated accordingly. This component is aligned parallel to the understanding of phonological loop, however, harder to analyse under empirical investigation, due to its greater complexity at least quite a significant extent. It seems that visual and spatial are considered separate but strong interrelated components of the system (Farah, 1988). Various research studies suggest that storage primarily occurs spatially depending on the memory task (Baddeley & Lieberman, 1980), principally visual as corresponding to by colour as well as shape (Logie, 1986) or to some possible extent by motor or kinaesthetic (Smyth & Pendleton, 1990). These findings are aligned with both lesion and neuroimaging studies indicating the system principally, but not exclusively, reliant on the right hemisphere of the brain (Della Sala & Logie, 2002; Smith & Jonides, 1997).
The Central Executive
This component is assumed to be responsible for the attentive management of working memory. It depends significantly, but not exclusively, on the frontal lobes (Stuss & Knight, 2002) and can almost in particular be segmented into a number of executive sub-processes (Baddeley, 2002; Shallice, 2002). Executive processes are considered to be the major aspects contributing to the individual differences within the span of working memory (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980). Working memory span has proved to be a profound interpreter of a wide array of complex cognitive abilities.
The Episodic Buffer
The concept of the episodic buffer primarily stemmed from the idea challenged by the identification of a range of phenomenon not corresponding with Baddeley and Logie model (1999), typically demonstrating two discrepancies within the model. The first discrepancy depicts the allocation of visual and verbal codes in combination with multidimensional representations in long term memory. The second discrepancy illustrates the need for the momentary storage of material in quantities surpassing the ability of either the verbal or visuo-spatial peripheral subsystems. These construes are highly challenged by a significant number of amnesic patients suffering from a gross impairment of long term memory, yet could carry out at a normal level on instantaneous recall of a prose passage consisting of 20 or more conceptual objects, thus significantly beyond verbal or spatial span (Baddeley & Wilson, 2002).
Language Perception
Language acquisition is considered as one of central topic in the field of cognitive science. Language is the primary tool by which one is able to understand other’s thoughts; hence these two factors are intimately related with each other. In the framework of cognitive science, language acquisition is not only an interesting phenomenon, but crucially important issue to be considered that sheds light on several important questions permeate to cognitive science –
• Modularity: whether children learn language by using a ‘mental organ’ which is partially not shared with other cognitive systems such as perception, motor control and reasoning (Chomsky, 1975, 1991; Fodor, 1983)? Or language acquisition can be considered as another developmental problem needs to be resolved by intelligence in order to communicate with other individuals over the auditory channel (Putnam, 1971; Bates, 1989)?
Human Uniqueness: whether humans are the only animals who know to fabricate the language or human children are ‘taught’ language themselves?
Language and Thought: should language be considered as a communicable label onto thought process (Fodor, 1975; Piaget, 1926) or learning a language implies learning to think in that particular language (Whorf, 1956)?
Neuropsychological Explanation of Language Acquisition
During early years of a child’s developmental phase, the maturation of language circuits acts as a driving force underlying the course of language acquisition (Pinker, 1994; Bates, Thal & Janowsky, 1992; Locke, 1992; Huttenlocher, 1990). Prior to birth, all neurons are formed, and they are allocated into their appropriate positions in the brain. The brain size, weight, and thickness of the cerebral cortex (grey matter) get increased quickly in the year after birth. The white matter is particularly responsible for developing long distance connections which are not completed till nine months of age; however, the continuity of the growth persists with the development of myelin insulation throughout childhood. During 9 months to 2 years of age, the synapses keep on increasing to its peak level depending on the brain region available; having about 50% more synapse than the adult. The metabolic activity in the brain region also takes its optimum shape and reaches to the adult level by 9-10 months of age and soon surpasses it, approaches at its peak at the age of four. Synapses shrink from 2 years of age throughout the rest of childhood and adolescence phase, while the brain’s metabolic rate declines to adult levels. It is assumed that the initial linguistic goals like babbling, first words and basic grammar need a minimum level of brain size, white matter, or extra synapses, in the language centres of the brain in particular. This corresponds with the notion that the ability of learning a language declines throughout the life span. The language learning circuitry is assumed to be more synthetic during childhood as the children can learn or recuperate language even when the left hemispheres gets damaged or surgically eliminated in comparison with an adult leading to possibly permanent aphasia (Curtiss, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967). However, researchers have come into conclusion through a major investigation that Wernicke’s aphasics consist of normal lexical access functionalities and that of Broca’s do not. The data in support of this argument is derived from the generalization of studies focusing on lexical priming (Blumstein, Milberg & Shrier, 1982; Katz, 1986; Milberg & Blumstein, 1981; Milberg, Blumstein & Dworetsky, 1987). Hence, Wernicke’s patients show the normal prototype of faster word recognition in semantically facilitating contexts or priming, but this is not the case with Broca’s patients. Moreover, Broca’s priming appears to be provisionally delayed, or more specifically, lexical contact and activation, as derived from priming, looks as if slower than normal fashion (Prather, et al., 1991).
While explaining the language acquisition processes on terms of cognitive theory, the studies conclude that changes in information processing abilities have an effect on language development. Children are found to be selective and they usually pick up information at the termination point of the words (Slobin, 1973) as well as at the initial point and ending point of a given sentence (Newport, et al., 1977), most likely this is due to the fact that these information can best be retained in short term memory. In addition to that, the gradual enlargement of bottleneck for early word allocation apparently sheds light in the general increase in motor planning ability. The language development pattern of a child not yet being mastered with critical semantic difference gets affected by conceptual development as well.
The neurological basis of language perception is always a topic of interests to the modern researchers as it was 100 years before. Recent studies suggest that linguistic inquest in association with neuroscience most readily congregate at the sentence level, which implies that at this level the relations between language organization, processing sources and brain architecture are mainly perceptible.